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Department of Biomedical Engineering, City College of the City University of New York, New York, NY, 10031, USADepartment of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
94 clinical TES studies were identified that used ROAST for modeling.
•
Over 1800 individual heads have been modeled by ROAST for more than 30 different clinical applications.
•
Similar electric field intensities were found across studies at the same brain area under same or similar stimulation montages.
Abstract
Background
Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) is broadly investigated as a therapeutic technique for a wide range of neurological disorders. The electric fields induced by TES in the brain can be estimated by computational models. A realistic and volumetric approach to simulate TES (ROAST) has been recently released as an open-source software package and has been widely used in TES research and its clinical applications. Rigor and reproducibility of TES studies have recently become a concern, especially in the context of computational modeling.
Methods
Here we reviewed 94 clinical TES studies that leveraged ROAST for computational modeling. When reviewing each study, we pay attention to details related to the rigor and reproducibility as defined by the locations of stimulation electrodes and the dose of stimulating current. Specifically, we compared across studies the electrode montages, stimulated brain areas, achieved electric field strength, and the relations between modeled electric field and clinical outcomes.
Results
We found that over 1800 individual heads have been modeled by ROAST for more than 30 different clinical applications. Similar electric field intensities were found to be reproducible by ROAST across different studies at the same brain area under same or similar stimulation montages.
Conclusion
This article reviews the use cases of ROAST and provides an overview of how ROAST has been leveraged to enhance the rigor and reproducibility of TES research and its applications.
1. Introduction
Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) has been broadly investigated as a therapeutic technique for a wide range of neurological disorders such as major depression [
Neuromodulation Center Working Group Evidence-based guidelines and secondary meta-analysis for the use of transcranial direct current stimulation in neurological and psychiatric disorders.
]. The location of stimulation electrodes on the scalp and the exact dose of stimulating current contribute to the rigor and reproducibility of TES studies, as these factors directly determine the stimulation intensity and focality at the desired targets in the brain [
Electric field calculations in brain stimulation based on finite elements: an optimized processing pipeline for the generation and usage of accurate individual head models.
], the use of current-flow models has greatly expanded to increase the study rigor (Fig. 1). However, proprietary engineering modeling tools (e.g., COMSOL, Abaqus) are technically sophisticated and difficult to implement for most medical doctors [
Electric field calculations in brain stimulation based on finite elements: an optimized processing pipeline for the generation and usage of accurate individual head models.
A pipeline for the simulation of transcranial direct current stimulation for realistic human head models using SCIRun/BioMesh3D.
in: 2012 annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2012 annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2012: 5486-5489https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2012.6347236
]. We recently released a realistic and volumetric approach to simulate TES (ROAST) which succeeds in terms of automation, ease-of-use, speed, and experimental validation [
Electric field calculations in brain stimulation based on finite elements: an optimized processing pipeline for the generation and usage of accurate individual head models.
Field modeling for transcranial magnetic stimulation: a useful tool to understand the physiological effects of TMS?.
in: 2015 37th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2015 37th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2015: 222-225https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2015.7318340
], ROAST advocates volumetric and realistic modeling of the anatomy in the head tissues and performed on par with SimNIBS when tested out-of-box on validation data [
Fig. 1Number of publications in PubMed returned by searching “computational models transcranial electrical stimulation”. Major open-source software for TES modeling are noted at their time of release. Note the release time of the software may be earlier than the time of their corresponding publication.
As a new software in the field of TES research, ROAST has gained hundreds of users in a short period of time (Fig. 2). It has been used to model over 1800 individual heads spanning across 12 applications (Table 1). By ensuring the accuracy and replicability throughout the entire modeling process including head segmentation, electrode location and placement, and dose of the stimulation, ROAST helped enhance the rigor and reproducibility of TES studies. Various montages were modeled and electric field magnitudes at the same brain areas under similar montages were reproducible across different studies (Table 2). This paper reviews the adoptions of this software and the use cases in detail, in the hope that future TES research and applications can have a reference on how to leverage readily available computational models to enhance rigor and reproducibility.
Fig. 2Traffic data from Google Analytics for the hosting website of ROAST. (A) Daily downloads since the first release (V1.0). Time points of major version upgrades are noted by vertical gray lines. Note that traffic data are not available immediately after V1.0 as we did not set up traffic tracking until February 2018. (B) Geographical distributions of visitors.
Table 1Clinical studies that used ROAST to model individual heads under different research contexts. Use purposes include: (I) ROI analysis of E-field against clinical outcomes; (II) Visualization of the E-field at ROI; (III) Voxel-based morphometry; (IV) Optimization of the stimulation; (V) Dose control; (VI) Visualization of electrode placement.
for the Open Access Series of Imaging Studies Dynamic changes of region-specific cortical features and scalp-to-cortex distance: implications for transcranial current stimulation modeling.
Testing the therapeutic effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in semantic dementia: a double blind, sham controlled, randomized clinical trial.
Feasibility of combining functional near-infrared spectroscopy with electroencephalography to identify chronic stroke responders to cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation—a computational modeling and portable neuroimaging methodological study.
Lobule-specific dosage considerations for cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation during healthy aging: a computational modeling study using age-specific magnetic resonance imaging templates.
Deep cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation of the dentate nucleus to facilitate standing balance in chronic stroke survivors—a pilot study.
Investigating the feasibility of cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation to facilitate post-stroke overground gait performance in chronic stroke: a partial least-squares regression approach.
Reading proficiency influences the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation: evidence from selective modulation of dorsal and ventral pathways of reading in bilinguals.
Dissociable effects of tDCS polarity on latent decision processes are associated with individual differences in neurochemical concentrations and cortical morphology.
Significant improvement in treatment resistant auditory verbal hallucinations after 5 days of double-blind, randomized, sham controlled, fronto-temporal, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a replication/extension study.
Advancing clinical response characterization to frontotemporal transcranial direct current stimulation with electric field distribution in patients with schizophrenia and auditory hallucinations: a pilot study.
Portable neuroimaging-guided noninvasive brain stimulation of the cortico-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop—hypothesis and theory in cannabis use disorder.
Table 2Details in the studies reported in Table 1. Electrode names follow international 10/05 convention unless otherwise specified. N/A: data not reported in the paper. EEG: electroencephalography; CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; tDCS/tACS: transcranial direct/alternating current stimulation; ROI: region of interest; DLPFC/VLPFC: dorso/ventral lateral prefrontal cortex; M1: primary motor cortex; TPOJ: temporo-parietal-occipital junction.
Number of Subjects Modeled (References)
Electrode montage (high-definition (H) or conventional(C))
Which brain area is specifically studied?
E-field or current density output by ROAST at studied brain area (normalized to 1 mA stimulation)
Average median were 0.007 A/m2 and 0.009 A/m2 for F3–F4, and 0.011 A/m2 and 0.012 A/m2 for C3-Fp2 montage in the older and young adult cohort, respectively.
for the Open Access Series of Imaging Studies Dynamic changes of region-specific cortical features and scalp-to-cortex distance: implications for transcranial current stimulation modeling.
Testing the therapeutic effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in semantic dementia: a double blind, sham controlled, randomized clinical trial.
Feasibility of combining functional near-infrared spectroscopy with electroencephalography to identify chronic stroke responders to cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation—a computational modeling and portable neuroimaging methodological study.
Lobule-specific dosage considerations for cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation during healthy aging: a computational modeling study using age-specific magnetic resonance imaging templates.
Deep cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation of the dentate nucleus to facilitate standing balance in chronic stroke survivors—a pilot study.
Investigating the feasibility of cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation to facilitate post-stroke overground gait performance in chronic stroke: a partial least-squares regression approach.
Reading proficiency influences the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation: evidence from selective modulation of dorsal and ventral pathways of reading in bilinguals.
Average E-field magnitude on the left motion area is 0.16 V/m, and on the right motion area 0.09 V/m.
Functional connectivity (between motion area and any other region of interest) increases in proportion to the E-field strength in the region of interest.
Dissociable effects of tDCS polarity on latent decision processes are associated with individual differences in neurochemical concentrations and cortical morphology.
Transcranial electrical stimulation motor threshold significantly correlated with the ROI-based reverse-calculated tDCS dose determined by E-field modeling.
Significant improvement in treatment resistant auditory verbal hallucinations after 5 days of double-blind, randomized, sham controlled, fronto-temporal, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a replication/extension study.
Advancing clinical response characterization to frontotemporal transcranial direct current stimulation with electric field distribution in patients with schizophrenia and auditory hallucinations: a pilot study.
Portable neuroimaging-guided noninvasive brain stimulation of the cortico-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop—hypothesis and theory in cannabis use disorder.
To find out the trend in the literature that utilized modeling for TES research, keywords “computational models transcranial electrical stimulation” were used to search the literature on PubMed. Number of publications by year was returned and plotted.
2.2 Adoptions of ROAST
Shortly after the release of ROAST, we have been tracking user downloads on the website that hosts ROAST (https://www.parralab.org/roast/) by Google Analytics. Daily downloads and geographic locations were stored and plotted.
2.3 Citation report
All the papers found on Google Scholar that cited ROAST publications [
ROAST: an open-source, fully-automated, realistic volumetric-approach-based simulator for TES.
in: 2018 40th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2018 40th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2018: 3072-3075https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2018.8513086
] were reviewed in April 2022. For each paper, we looked up the number of subjects that were modeled by ROAST, the clinical applications of the subjects that were studied, and the purpose of computational modeling in that study.
2.4 Rigor and reproducibility
A workshop organized by the National Institute of Mental Health in 2016 discussed major factors contributing to the rigor and reproducibility of TES research [
]. The factors that relate to computational modeling include locations of the placed electrodes on the scalp and the dosing of the stimulation. To show how ROAST helps to enhance rigor and reproducibility in those clinical studies found on Google Scholar that used ROAST for modeling more than one individual head, we extracted the following information and compared them across studies: electrode montage and electrode type (conventional (C) vs. high-definition (HD)), stimulated brain areas, achieved intensity of electric field at the stimulated areas (normalized to 1 mA dose), correlation between modeled electric field and clinical outcomes, and subject characteristics (patients vs. healthy).
3. Results
3.1 Computational models of TES tend to be widely adopted
It is obvious that more and more TES studies start to use computational models (Fig. 1), especially since the introduction of individualized modeling from MRIs [
]. SimNIBS, SciRun, and ROAST all helped push the adoption of current-flow models in the literature. Specifically, ROAST has been downloaded 1598 times (1414 unique downloads; see Fig. 2) by April 2022.
3.2 ROAST has been heavily used for individualized TES modeling
According to Google Scholar, the papers in which ROAST was published [
ROAST: an open-source, fully-automated, realistic volumetric-approach-based simulator for TES.
in: 2018 40th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2018 40th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2018: 3072-3075https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2018.8513086
] had been cited 225 times by April 2022. Among these, 15 are dissertations and 24 are reviews and book chapters. We reviewed the remaining 186 papers, and found 94 clinical TES studies that used ROAST for computational modeling. Table 1 summarizes all the results for each specific clinical application. As a reference, note that SimNIBS [
Electric field calculations in brain stimulation based on finite elements: an optimized processing pipeline for the generation and usage of accurate individual head models.
Field modeling for transcranial magnetic stimulation: a useful tool to understand the physiological effects of TMS?.
in: 2015 37th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2015 37th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2015: 222-225https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2015.7318340
A pipeline for the simulation of transcranial direct current stimulation for realistic human head models using SCIRun/BioMesh3D.
in: 2012 annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2012 annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2012: 5486-5489https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2012.6347236
] has been cited 57 times. One of the studies in Table 1 also used SimNIBS to model the 32 heads but did not find any significant difference in predicted electric field compared to ROAST [
It is clear from Table 1 that ROAST has been applied in clinical studies spanning across 12 applications and modeled 1858 individual heads, thanks to its scripting feature that allows easy batch processing. Most of these studies used ROAST to visualize the stimulation electrodes and the electric field distribution at the region of interests (ROI), and to correlate the simulated electric field intensities at the ROIs with clinical outcomes. Some of these studies used ROAST to calculate the dosing of stimulation, optimize the stimulation montage, or perform voxel-based morphometry using the generated tissue segmentation. The study that modeled the most subjects was [
]; where N = 587 healthy older adults under TES were modeled. The results showed that the amount of stimulation current that reaches the brain decreases with increasing atrophy, suggesting that adjusting current dose in older adults based on degree of atrophy may be necessary to achieve desired stimulation benefits. It was not possible to perform TES modeling studies with rigor and reproducibility for over 500 subjects before ROAST was created, as one had to run head segmentation, electrode placement, and electric field computation by hand in various software [
Testing the therapeutic effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in semantic dementia: a double blind, sham controlled, randomized clinical trial.
] simulated N = 60 dementia patients to correlate the model-predicted electric field at ROIs with clinical data to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of a multi-day TES regime on language impairment in patients with semantic dementia. Ref. [
] used ROAST to model N = 8 glioma patients in their study of TES feasibility on these patients. They showed that patient-specific modeling of electric field in the presence of tumor may contribute to understanding the dose-response relationship of this intervention. Ref. [
Lobule-specific dosage considerations for cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation during healthy aging: a computational modeling study using age-specific magnetic resonance imaging templates.
] modeled N = 18 subjects at different ages for cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation and found that cerebellar shrinkage and increasing thickness of the highly conductive CSF during healthy aging can lead to the dispersion of the current away from the lobules underlying the active electrode. Ref. [
Reading proficiency influences the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation: evidence from selective modulation of dorsal and ventral pathways of reading in bilinguals.
] built individualized models for N = 16 subjects to help determine the best montage for selective modulation of dorsal and ventral pathways of reading in bilinguals. Ref. [
] used ROAST to calculate the electric field intensities in N = 151 patients with severe depression undergoing electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and found that the electric fields predicted by ROAST positively correlate with the volumetric changes of the brain due to ECT. Ref. [
] compared in vivo measured electric fields during TES on N = 12 epilepsy patients with their individual models generated by ROAST to validate the models. Ref. [
] built N = 10 individualized models using ROAST to study if electric field intensities at the ROIs positively correlate with functional connectivity. Another relatively large study [
] leveraged ROAST to model N = 240 individuals to study the effects of cortical anatomical parameters such as volumes, dimension, and torque on simulated TES current density in healthy young, middle-aged, and older males and females. Ref. [
Significant improvement in treatment resistant auditory verbal hallucinations after 5 days of double-blind, randomized, sham controlled, fronto-temporal, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a replication/extension study.
] modeled N = 21 individual heads to assess the target engagement in their study of TES on antipsychotic-resistant auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. Refs. [
Portable neuroimaging-guided noninvasive brain stimulation of the cortico-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop—hypothesis and theory in cannabis use disorder.
] built individualized head models for N = 5 subjects to compute the optimal electrode montage to target the cortico-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop for improving substance use disorder. Ref. [
] modeled N = 15 subjects to predict significant changes of functional connectivity observed in the working memory network from an acute TES application.
In addition, many studies run the models on the example head included with ROAST or an individual sample from the investigators. These work cover various clinical applications including: attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder [
Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) as a tool to modulate P300 amplitude in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): preliminary findings.
Effects of cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation on inhibitory and attention control in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a pilot randomized sham-controlled crossover study.
Hemisphere-specific, differential effects of lateralized, occipital–parietal α- versus γ-tACS on endogenous but not exogenous visual-spatial attention.
Perturbation of right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex makes power holders less resistant to tempting bribes. Psychol Sci 09567976211042379,
2022https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211042379
Schulreich, S., Schwabe, L., n.d. Causal role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in belief updating under uncertainty. Cerebr Cortex. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhaa219.
Reduction in left frontal alpha oscillations by transcranial alternating current stimulation in major depressive disorder is context dependent in a randomized clinical trial.
Experimental-design specific changes in spontaneous EEG and during intermittent photic stimulation by high definition transcranial direct current stimulation.
Polarity-specific high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation of the anterior and posterior default mode network improves remote memory retrieval.
Intensified electrical stimulation targeting lateral and medial prefrontal cortices for the treatment of social anxiety disorder: a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, dose-comparison study.
Transcranial random noise stimulation is more effective than transcranial direct current stimulation for enhancing working memory in healthy individuals: behavioural and electrophysiological evidence.
Effects of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) of the intraparietal sulcus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on working memory and divided attention.
Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation paired with cognitive training on functional connectivity of the working memory network in older adults.
Note that for those studies that involved subjects with pathological head anatomies (e.g., tumor or lesion), customized segmentation was performed and integrated into the ROAST pipeline to account for these anatomies [
3.3 ROAST helps to enhance the rigor and reproducibility
From Table 2, we can see that ROAST has been used to model various electrode montages to stimulate different brain areas. 29 out of the 35 studies in Table 2 used bipolar montages, and 21 of these bipolar montages are conventional pad electrodes. Most of the studies in Table 2 were interested in stimulating the primary motor cortex (M1), frontal cortex and cerebellum. For the primary motor cortex, Ref. [
] used bipolar montage C3-FP1 with conventional electrodes and achieved an average electric field of 0.12 V/m at the left M1 with 1 mA stimulating current. Ref. [
Dissociable effects of tDCS polarity on latent decision processes are associated with individual differences in neurochemical concentrations and cortical morphology.
Deep cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation of the dentate nucleus to facilitate standing balance in chronic stroke survivors—a pilot study.
Investigating the feasibility of cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation to facilitate post-stroke overground gait performance in chronic stroke: a partial least-squares regression approach.
] report an average of about 0.05 V/m under the same montage of PO9h–PO10h using high-definition electrodes. These results suggest that ROAST may help to enhance the rigor of TES models as similar electric field intensities were reproducible across different studies at the same brain area under same or similar stimulation montages.
In Table 2, 21 out of the 35 studies focus on healthy subjects including old and young adults. The other 14 studies in Table 2 build models for patients with the corresponding clinical applications in Table 1. For all the studies in Table 1 with Use Purpose (I), i.e., ROI analysis of E-field against clinical outcomes, we noted in Table 2 the detailed correlation between the predicted electric field and the studied clinical outcome/metric. Except one study [
Dissociable effects of tDCS polarity on latent decision processes are associated with individual differences in neurochemical concentrations and cortical morphology.
], all the other studies in Table 2 report significant correlations between the electric field intensity and the outcome of stimulation or the inter-individual variability.
4. Discussions and conclusions
It is clear that computational models are becoming more and more intensively used in the research and clinical applications of TES to enhance rigor and reproducibility. As a new modeling tool in the TES community, ROAST can be improved in several ways to further strengthen study rigor and reproducibility: (1) ROI analysis: a function that allows users to automatically read out electric fields at the ROIs either in the individual head or the standard head space [
3D statistical neuroanatomical models from 305 MRI volumes.
in: Nuclear science symposium and medical imaging conference, 1993., 1993 IEEE conference record. Presented at the nuclear science symposium and medical imaging conference, 1993. 3. IEEE Conference Record.,
1993: 1813-1817https://doi.org/10.1109/NSSMIC.1993.373602
]. (2) Interface with other open-source software. For example, researchers in source imaging using electroencephalography/magnetoencephalography (EEG/MEG) rely on the same forward models that ROAST generates [
]. (3) Interface of customized segmentation. This will allow users to add additional, customized geometry in the model. (4) Integration of modern deep-learning engine for segmentation of pathological head anatomies mostly presented in clinical populations [
] is not capable of handling pathological heads. (5) Development of a platform that allows calibration of tissue conductivities for more accurate and personalized modeling. TES models overestimate the electric field compared to intracranial electrical recordings [
] to calibrate the models and derive individualized tissue conductivities. This will facilitate more precise dosing and spatial targeting for the stimulation.
In conclusion, the era of precise medicine has come including clinical applications of TES where highly individualized and accurate computational models are becoming more readily accessible with constantly improved software and computational power.
Declaration of competing interest
We report no relevant conflicts of interest or industry support.
Declaration of competing interest
We report no relevant conflicts of interest or industry support.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health through grants P30CA008748 and R01CA247910 . Support was also provided by the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Department of Radiology.
References
Bikson M.
Bulow P.
Stiller J.
Datta A.
Battaglia F.
Karnup S.
Postolache T.
Transcranial direct current stimulation for major depression: a general system for quantifying transcranial electrotherapy dosage.
Evidence-based guidelines and secondary meta-analysis for the use of transcranial direct current stimulation in neurological and psychiatric disorders.
Electric field calculations in brain stimulation based on finite elements: an optimized processing pipeline for the generation and usage of accurate individual head models.
A pipeline for the simulation of transcranial direct current stimulation for realistic human head models using SCIRun/BioMesh3D.
in: 2012 annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2012 annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2012: 5486-5489https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2012.6347236
Field modeling for transcranial magnetic stimulation: a useful tool to understand the physiological effects of TMS?.
in: 2015 37th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2015 37th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2015: 222-225https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2015.7318340
Testing the therapeutic effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in semantic dementia: a double blind, sham controlled, randomized clinical trial.
Feasibility of combining functional near-infrared spectroscopy with electroencephalography to identify chronic stroke responders to cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation—a computational modeling and portable neuroimaging methodological study.
Lobule-specific dosage considerations for cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation during healthy aging: a computational modeling study using age-specific magnetic resonance imaging templates.
Deep cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation of the dentate nucleus to facilitate standing balance in chronic stroke survivors—a pilot study.
Investigating the feasibility of cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation to facilitate post-stroke overground gait performance in chronic stroke: a partial least-squares regression approach.
Reading proficiency influences the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation: evidence from selective modulation of dorsal and ventral pathways of reading in bilinguals.
Dissociable effects of tDCS polarity on latent decision processes are associated with individual differences in neurochemical concentrations and cortical morphology.
Significant improvement in treatment resistant auditory verbal hallucinations after 5 days of double-blind, randomized, sham controlled, fronto-temporal, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a replication/extension study.
Advancing clinical response characterization to frontotemporal transcranial direct current stimulation with electric field distribution in patients with schizophrenia and auditory hallucinations: a pilot study.
Portable neuroimaging-guided noninvasive brain stimulation of the cortico-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop—hypothesis and theory in cannabis use disorder.
ROAST: an open-source, fully-automated, realistic volumetric-approach-based simulator for TES.
in: 2018 40th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). Presented at the 2018 40th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society. EMBC,
2018: 3072-3075https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2018.8513086
Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) as a tool to modulate P300 amplitude in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): preliminary findings.
Effects of cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation on inhibitory and attention control in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a pilot randomized sham-controlled crossover study.
Hemisphere-specific, differential effects of lateralized, occipital–parietal α- versus γ-tACS on endogenous but not exogenous visual-spatial attention.
Perturbation of right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex makes power holders less resistant to tempting bribes. Psychol Sci 09567976211042379,
2022https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211042379
Reduction in left frontal alpha oscillations by transcranial alternating current stimulation in major depressive disorder is context dependent in a randomized clinical trial.
Experimental-design specific changes in spontaneous EEG and during intermittent photic stimulation by high definition transcranial direct current stimulation.
Polarity-specific high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation of the anterior and posterior default mode network improves remote memory retrieval.
Intensified electrical stimulation targeting lateral and medial prefrontal cortices for the treatment of social anxiety disorder: a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, dose-comparison study.
Transcranial random noise stimulation is more effective than transcranial direct current stimulation for enhancing working memory in healthy individuals: behavioural and electrophysiological evidence.
Effects of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) of the intraparietal sulcus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on working memory and divided attention.
Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation paired with cognitive training on functional connectivity of the working memory network in older adults.
3D statistical neuroanatomical models from 305 MRI volumes.
in: Nuclear science symposium and medical imaging conference, 1993., 1993 IEEE conference record. Presented at the nuclear science symposium and medical imaging conference, 1993. 3. IEEE Conference Record.,
1993: 1813-1817https://doi.org/10.1109/NSSMIC.1993.373602
Schulreich, S., Schwabe, L., n.d. Causal role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in belief updating under uncertainty. Cerebr Cortex. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhaa219.
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